Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity over time.

The physiological adjustments the body makes over time in response to environmental changes such as heat, humidity, or altitude.

Acidosis occurs when the pH within muscle fibers decreases, typically due to an accumulation of H⁺ ions, resulting in impaired muscle function and fatigue.

The ACL is a key ligament in the knee that stabilizes the joint by preventing excessive forward movement of the tibia relative to the femur.

Actin: Provides binding sites for myosin.

Acute trauma is a short-term response to a single, unexpected event that causes intense fear and distress. It can lead to physical, behavioral, and psychological symptoms.

• Adaptation refers to the continual adjustment and reorganization of an athlete’s physical components such as muscles and limbs, to effectively respond to changing constraints during sports competition.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) – A high-energy molecule that stores and provides energy for cellular processes, including muscle contraction and metabolism.

Body fat that stores energy and fat-soluble vitamins.

A type of exercise that improves the body's ability to sustain prolonged physical activity by enhancing cardiovascular and muscular efficiency.

Affordances are action opportunities provided by the sporting environment, representing interactions between athletes and their surroundings. Athletes recognize affordances by understanding how they can respond effectively to specific performance conditions. These opportunities invite athletes to act based on their past experiences, learned skills, and individual motivations.

The agonist, or prime mover, is the muscle primarily responsible for generating force to initiate and execute movement.

Agreeableness is a personality trait referring to individuals that are perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm, honest, and considerate.

Air resistance describes the forces that are in opposition to the relative motion of an object as it passes through the air.

A hormone that regulates sodium and potassium levels in the body, influencing water retention and blood pressure.

Alveoli are tiny, balloon-like structures that are the primary site for the exchange of gases (O₂ and CO₂). They provide a large surface area for gas exchange due to their many folds.

Amotivation is a state where a person lacks the desire or intention to act.

The metabolic process that builds complex molecules from simpler ones, using energy (e.g., muscle protein synthesis).

An imaginary flat surface used to divide the body for anatomical study and movement analysis. The main anatomical planes are: Sagittal Plane, Frontal (Coronal) Plane and Transverse Plane

The standard reference position where the body stands upright, facing forward, with arms at sides and palms facing forward.

Chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart muscle.

Angle of projection is the angle formed by the initial velocity of a body and the horizontal plane through which the body is thrown.

Angular acceleration is the rate at which angular velocity changes over time.

Angular displacement refers to the change in the angular position of a rotating body.

Angular momentum measures the amount of rotational motion an object has or can achieve. It is generated by torque when an eccentric force is applied to an object that is free to rotate around an axis. This force may come from external objects (e.g., the ground or sports equipment), another body, or muscle movements. Angular momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both size and direction, and it is measured in kg·m²/s. It is represented by the letter L and is given by the equation: L=Iω where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity.

The motion of a body about a fixed point or fixed axis

Angular velocity measures the rate at which an object rotates around an axis.

An antagonist muscle works opposite to the agonist, lengthening to allow movement while providing control and stability.

The scientific study of human body measurements, proportions, and physical characteristics

A hormone that increases water reabsorption in the kidneys to prevent dehydration.

Anxiety is a negative emotional state that includes feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension. It is often triggered by perceived pressure or threats in a sporting environment.

The bones of the limbs and their attachments to the axial skeleton

Arousal is the state of being physiologically alert, awake, and attentive

Arousal refers to the level of physiological and psychological activation an athlete experiences. It ranges from low (relaxed) to high (intense excitement or stress).

The difference in oxygen content between arterial and venous blood, indicating how much oxygen is extracted by muscles during circulation.

An articulation (joint) is the connection between two or more bones that allows varying degrees of movement, depending on its type and structure.

Atherosclerosis is the accumulation of fatty deposits (plaque) in the arterial walls, which causes the arteries to become stiff and narrow, reducing blood flow.

A structure in the heart that delays electrical impulses to allow the atria to contract before the ventricles.

Atrophy – A decrease in muscle mass and strength due to disuse, injury, or aging.

Attention is the behavior a person uses to focus the senses, from sight to hearing and even smell

Attention is essential for successful skilled performance in sport and exercise, involving the concentration of mental activity on relevant tasks.

Attentional narrowing is a psychological state where a person focuses on a small set of information, ignoring other stimuli. It can occur during stressful situations, and can lead to accidents.

Attribution theory examines how people explain their successes and failures, influencing their future expectations and achievement behavior. Heider (1958) originally categorized attributions into four factors: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck.

A condition in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells

Autonomous motivation is when someone engages in an activity because they believe it's in line with their own goals and values. It's a self-determined behavior that comes from within the person

Independence or freedom, as of the will or one's actions

Imaginary lines around which body segments rotate

The central core of bones that forms the body's longitudinal axis

An axis of rotation is an imaginary line around which movement occurs.

White blood cells responsible for producing antibodies that fight off pathogens.

Receptors that monitor changes in blood pressure.

The amount of energy required by the body to maintain basic physiological functions at rest.

When fluid velocity increases, pressure decreases, and vice versa. This principle explains how lift is generated in sports.

The primary form of carbon dioxide transport in the blood, formed when CO₂ combines with water.

Incorrect movement patterns or techniques that place excessive stress on specific body structures, leading to potential injury over time.

Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by blood on artery walls, measured in mmHg.

A measurement that uses height and weight to assess whether an individual has a healthy body weight.

Bone is a dense, hard connective tissue that forms the skeletal structure of the body, playing an essential role in movement, support, and protection of vital organs.

Essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, valine) that support muscle protein synthesis and recovery, influenced by gut microbiome activity.

A type of fat tissue that generates heat through non-shivering thermogenesis by burning fat, especially in response to cold exposure.

A part of the heart’s conduction system that transmits impulses from the AV node to the ventricles.

Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid (air or water) that opposes the weight of an object submerged in it.

Carbohydrate loading is a dietary strategy aimed at increasing muscle glycogen stores before endurance events.

The volume of blood the heart pumps per minute.

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) refers to a broad range of conditions that affect the heart and blood vessels.

Cardiovascular drift is the gradual increase in heart rate (HR) observed during prolonged submaximal exercise, typically when the body is exposed to heat or thermoneutral conditions.

Cartilage is a specialized connective tissue that serves several functions in the body, including providing cushioning, reducing friction, and enabling smooth movement.

The metabolic process that breaks down complex molecules to release energy (e.g., breaking down glucose to produce ATP).

Catastrophe theory refers to a psychological model that describes how a sudden and dramatic drop in performance can occur when an athlete's arousal level becomes too high, particularly when combined with high cognitive anxiety, leading to a "catastrophic" decline in performance rather than a gradual decrease.

Central fatigue is the decline in neural activation of muscles due to changes in the brain and spinal cord, reducing an individual’s ability to sustain forceful contractions.

Receptors that detect changes in the chemical composition of the blood, including oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.

An injury that develops gradually over time, usually due to repetitive overuse of a body part. Chronic injuries are also known as overuse injuries.

Circumduction is a circular movement of a limb that occurs when the distal end moves in a circular path while the proximal end remains relatively fixed.

A number that measures how much friction exists between two surfaces. It's also a measure of how much force is required to move an object across a surface

The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understanding, including memory, learning, and problem-solving.

A collision occurs when two or more objects come into contact and exert forces on each other over a short period of time.

The ability to do something successfully or efficiently.

Isotonic Concentric – A muscle contraction where the muscle shortens while generating force.

A mild traumatic brain injury that temporarily affects brain function. Each case is unique, with symptoms and recovery varying between individuals.

Specialised tissue that supports, connects, and separates other tissues and organs

Conscientiousness is a personality that reflects the tendency to be responsible, organized, hard-working, goal-directed, and to adhere to norms and rules.

Conservation of angular momentum is a physical property of a spinning system such that its spin remains constant unless it is acted upon by an external torque

A continuous skill is a repetitive movement that has no clear beginning or end. It's a cycle of movements that are repeated over and over again. Examples of continuous skills include running, cycling, and swimming

Controlled motivation is driven by external factors, such as rewards or pressures.

Transfer of heat through the movement of air or liquids

Coordinates measure distance from an origin (e.g., in meters) and are given in two dimensions (x, y: horizontal and vertical) or three dimensions (x, y, z: horizontal, vertical, lateral). Two systems for three-dimensional coordinates: System 1: x = horizontal, y = vertical, z = lateral and System 2: x = horizontal, y = lateral, z = vertical. Angular coordinates are measured as angles around one or more axes.

Coping is defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) as the constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage internal or external demands perceived as taxing or exceeding personal resources.

Coping strategies refer to the specific efforts, both behavioural and psychological, that people employ to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize stressful events

A metabolic pathway in which lactate produced in muscles is transported to the liver and converted back to glucose.

The process in which lactate is transported to the liver and converted back into glucose via gluconeogenesis.

The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine gland formed in the ovary after ovulation.

A hormone produced during stress that, in excess, can suppress immune function and impair immune responses.

A supplement that enhances ATP replenishment, muscle hydration, and recovery from high-intensity exercise.

A molecule stored in muscles that rapidly regenerates ATP from ADP during short, high-intensity activities.

The critical instant phase is the moment of contact or release of a movement, such as when a ball is struck in tennis or when a diver loses contact with the water. It's a crucial phase that determines the effectiveness of a skill.

The highest power output an individual can sustain over time without a rapid rise in blood lactate levels, closely related to endurance capacity.

An injury that develops over time due to repeated stress or motion

A cytokine is a protein that acts as a chemical messenger to regulate the immune system.

Muscle pain and stiffness that occur 24–48 hours after intense exercise due to microtears in muscle fibers.

The phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart relaxes and fills with blood.

Diastolic BP is the pressure during heart relaxation when the heart is filling with blood.

A discrete skill is a single action with a clear beginning and end. It can be repeated, but the performer must start from the beginning.

Displacement is the shortest straight-line distance between an object’s starting and ending positions, including direction.

Distance is the total length of the path traveled by an object, regardless of direction.

Substances that increase urine production, leading to fluid loss (e.g., caffeine, alcohol, certain medications).

Muscle pain and stiffness that occurs after intense exercise, usually within 24–72 hours, caused by microscopic muscle tears that occur during eccentric muscle contractions.

A neurotransmitter involved in motivation and mood regulation, affected by psychological recovery and sleep quality.

Movement of the foot that pulls the toes upward toward the shin, decreasing the angle between the foot and lower leg.

Drag is the resistive force that opposes the motion of an object through a fluid.

Drive theory refers to a psychological concept that suggests a linear relationship between an athlete's arousal level and their performance, meaning as arousal increases, so does their performance, with no optimal level of arousal; essentially, the more aroused an athlete is, the better they will perform according to this theory.

Dynamic friction is the force that resists the motion of an object that is already moving. It's also known as kinetic friction.

An imbalance in the gut microbiome, where harmful microbes outnumber beneficial ones, potentially leading to digestive issues, inflammation, and metabolic disorders.

A specialized cell or structure that detects changes in the internal or external environment and sends signals to the control center.

A structure (e.g., muscle or gland) that responds to signals from the control center to restore homeostasis.

Ego orientation refers to a mindset where an individual defines success primarily by comparing themselves to others, focusing on performing better than peers and demonstrating their superiority rather than on personal improvement or mastery of a task; essentially, basing their sense of achievement on external validation and social comparison

Electrolytes are ions that carry an electric charge in body fluids. They are essential for nerve transmission, muscle contractions, and maintaining fluid balance.

Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electrical charge, essential for fluid balance, nerve signaling, and muscle contraction.

A series of protein complexes in the mitochondria that transfer electrons to produce ATP during aerobic metabolism.

A system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various body functions.

Natural chemicals produced by the body during exercise that act as mood enhancers and contribute to feelings of well-being.

The ability to do work, which is the ability to exert a force causing displacement of an object.

Energy balance refers to the relationship between the energy taken in (food and drink) and the energy expended (through basal metabolic rate, physical activity, and digestion).

The energy continuum refers to the dynamic interaction of the three energy systems (phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative systems) during physical activity.

Energy systems are biochemical pathways that the body uses to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary source of energy for all cellular activities, including muscle contractions during physical activity.

External factors such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind, water salinity, and altitude that affect the forces acting on objects and athletes during sport performance.

Also known as adrenaline, epinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter released by the adrenal medulla during the fight-or-flight response.

The application of anthropometric data to create equipment and environments that optimize human performance and reduce fatigue

Ergonomics involves designing equipment, environments, and tasks to fit human capabilities, enhancing efficiency, safety, and comfort.

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates red blood cell (erythrocyte) production in the bone marrow, improving oxygen delivery to tissues.

A hormone released by the kidneys that stimulates red blood cell production in response to low oxygen levels.

Cooling mechanism where sweat evaporates from the skin, absorbing heat from the body and lowering body temperature. Efficiency is affected by humidity.

Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) refers to the continued elevation of oxygen consumption after exercise has ended.

Exercise prescription is the process of designing a structured exercise program that is specifically tailored to meet an individual’s health or performance goals.

The additional amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal breath.

A movement that increases the angle between two bones at a joint.

A risk is considered to be external when an organization has little or no control over if, when or how it might occur.

Extraversion is a personality trait that describes someone who is outgoing, energetic, and sociable

Extrinsic motivation refers to the drive to participate in an activity due to external rewards or pressures, such as praise, recognition, trophies, or grades, rather than the inherent enjoyment of the activity itself; essentially, being motivated by factors outside of oneself to perform a behavior.

Fascia is fibrous connective tissue that surrounds muscles, organs, and other internal structures, providing support, protection, and enabling flexibility and movement.

A connective tissue surrounding muscles that can become tight or restricted, affecting flexibility and muscle recovery.

Fatigue refers to the reduced capacity of muscles to perform due to prolonged exertion.

Fatigue is the inability to maintain the required or expected power output during physical activity, resulting in a decline in performance.

First-Class Lever – A lever where the fulcrum is between the effort and the load, like a seesaw (e.g., neck extension).

A fixator (stabilizer) muscle stabilizes a joint so that the agonist can work effectively.

Flexibility training is a type of exercise that improves your range of motion and the ability of your joints to move. It can help you move more easily, avoid discomfort, and reduce the risk of injury

A movement that decreases the angle between two bones at a joint.

The main or central point of something, especially of attention or interest

A B vitamin essential for DNA synthesis, cell division, and preventing neural tube defects in developing fetuses.

Follow-Through Phase refers to the final stage of a movement or action, where the body gradually decelerates and returns to a stable position after completing the primary action, essentially allowing for a smooth transition to the next movement or rest; it is the "finishing" part of the motion, like the controlled landing after a jump or the wrist flick at the end of a basketball shot.

The body's ability to safely dissipate and manage external forces to prevent injury.

Force Production Phase refers to the specific moment during a movement where muscles actively generate the most force, essentially the phase where the body is actively pushing against an external resistance to create movement, whether it be in a jump, throw, or sprint; it involves the coordinated contraction of muscles to produce the necessary force for the desired action.

Form Drag is the drag caused by the separation of the boundary layer from a surface and the wake created by that separation

A force that opposes the motion between two surfaces in contact, acting parallel to the surfaces and in the opposite direction of motion.

Damage to skin and underlying tissue caused by prolonged exposure to freezing temperatures, commonly affecting extremities like fingers and toes.

Gas exchange refers to the movement of oxygen into the bloodstream at the lungs and carbon dioxide out of the bloodstream for exhalation.

A form of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy, which can be managed with regular physical activity to maintain healthy blood sugar levels.

The production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as proteins and fats.

A measure of how quickly carbohydrates raise blood glucose levels, with high-GI foods promoting faster glycogen replenishment.

The stored form of glucose found in the liver and muscles, which can be broken down into glucose for ATP production during exercise.

The process of converting glucose into glycogen for storage, mainly in the liver and muscles.

The process of breaking down glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood for energy use.

A process that breaks down glucose or glycogen into pyruvate without the use of oxygen, producing ATP and lactic acid as a byproduct.

Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken down to produce energy.

Goal orientation theory (Nicholls, 1989), also referred to as achievement goal theory, suggests that in achievement-based settings such as sports and exercise, individuals are primarily motivated to demonstrate high ability while avoiding the appearance of low ability.

Goal setting refers to the process of establishing clear, specific, and attainable objectives that an individual aims to achieve, often used to enhance motivation, performance, and persistence in athletic endeavors, typically involving a combination of outcome, performance, and process goals depending on the situation

An attractive force that acts between objects with mass. Proportional to mass, inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Effects of Gravity: Causes planetary orbits and is responsible for the Earth’s attraction to objects near its surface.

The force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth, or towards any other physical body having mass.

The gut microbiome refers to the collection of microorganisms living in the digestive system, particularly in the intestines.

The gut-brain axis is the bidirectional communication between the gut microbiome and the brain.

The bidirectional communication system between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system, influencing mood, cognition, and stress response.

A type of cholesterol that is considered "good" because it helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream, reducing the risk of plaque buildup in the arteries.

Heart rate is the number of times the heart beats per minute (bpm). It reflects how fast the heart pumps blood to meet metabolic demands.

The height above the ground level, or the height above the point of landing, of the centre of gravity of a projectile immediately before it leaves the ground.

The vein that carries absorbed nutrients from the small intestine to the liver for processing.

A training method involving short bursts of intense effort followed by rest, improving VO₂ max and cardiovascular efficiency.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within an organism, ensuring optimal conditions for cellular processes.

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream.

A condition characterized by excessively high sodium levels in the blood due to inadequate water intake, leading to cellular dehydration.

Hypertension is a condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.

Hypertrophy refers to the increase in the size of muscle fibers.

Hypertrophy – An increase in muscle size and strength due to resistance training and consistent use.

A condition where excess water intake dilutes sodium levels in the blood, causing cells to swell.

A condition where the body’s core temperature drops below 35°C, impairing normal physiological functions and potentially leading to severe health complications.

Impulse is the product of force and the time.

The product of force and time (F×Δt), representing the change in momentum.

Inertia is a property of matter that causes an object to resist changes in its state of motion. The more mass an object has, the greater its inertia.

Inflammation is the body's protective response to injury or infection, involving increased blood flow, immune activity, and the release of chemicals to repair damaged tissue.

Initial velocity is the speed at which a projectile is launched. It has two components:

Injury risk is the probability of sustaining an injury based on the interaction of internal and external risk factors.

The additional amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal breath.

Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity at a specific instant in time.

Velocity measured over an extremely short time interval ("instant").

A condition in which the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels.

Intensity refers to the effort or difficulty level of an exercise.

Personalities are created through consistent interactions between the individual and the environment. This is summarized in the equation: B = f(P,E) where behavior (B), function (f) of the person (P) and the environment (E).

Internal risks refer to potential threats or vulnerabilities that originate from within an organization, arising from factors like employee actions, internal processes, or technology systems, which could negatively impact the company's operations or objectives; essentially, risks that are controllable by the organization itself.

Internal risk factors refer to variables inherent to the individual that can affect their susceptibility to injury.

Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal drive to participate in an activity for its own sake, meaning a person is motivated by the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment they get from the activity itself, rather than external rewards or pressures like trophies or praise.

The 'inverted U' theory proposes that sporting performance improves as arousal levels increase but that there is a threshold point. Any increase in arousal beyond the threshold point will worsen performance. At low arousal levels, performance quality is low.

Isokinetic – A muscle contraction where movement occurs at a constant speed with variable resistance.

Isometric – A muscle contraction where tension is produced without a change in muscle length.

Isotonic – A type of muscle contraction where the muscle changes length while producing force, including both concentric (shortening) and eccentric (lengthening) contractions.

Isotonic Eccentric – A muscle contraction where the muscle lengthens while controlling force.

Jet lag is a physiological condition caused by traveling across multiple time zones, leading to a mismatch between internal body clocks (circadian rhythm) and the new time zone.

Where two or more bones meet, allowing movement and providing stability

Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that studies motion without considering the forces that cause it. It focuses on describing motion using parameters such as position, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.

A series of biochemical reactions occurring in the mitochondria that further break down pyruvate to release high-energy electrons, contributing to ATP production.

A metabolic byproduct of anaerobic glycolysis that can be used as an energy source in muscles, the heart, and the liver.

A byproduct of anaerobic glycolysis that is produced when pyruvate is converted in the absence of oxygen. Accumulation of lactate contributes to muscle fatigue.

The Lactate Inflection Point (LIP) is the maximum intensity at which the body can metabolize lactate at the same rate as it is produced.

The point at which lactic acid begins to accumulate in the blood faster than it can be cleared, affecting endurance performance.

LDL cholesterol is a type of cholesterol that contributes to the buildup of fatty deposits in the arteries.

A condition in which a person has a sense of powerlessness event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression.

A lasting improvement in performance through consistent practice.

• A learning curve refers to a graphical representation illustrating how a person's skill or performance improves over time through practice or experience.
• It shows the rate and pattern of progress as someone learns a new skill, highlighting periods of rapid improvement, slower progression, or plateaus.

A lever is a rigid structure that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum. Levers are used to move a load (resistance) by applying an effort (force). The relative positions of the fulcrum, load, and effort determine the type of lever and its mechanical advantage or disadvantage.

Lift is the force that acts at a right angle to the direction of motion through the air. Lift is created by differences in air pressure.

Ligaments are connective tissues that play a pivotal role in stabilizing and supporting joints by connecting bone to bone.

The probability or chance that an injury will occur during a specific activity or event.

Force applied over a period of time. Formula: J=FΔt where: FF = force (N) and ΔtΔt = time duration (s). Also a vector quantity.

Property of an object due to its movement. Formula: p=mv, where: mm = mass (kg) and vv = velocity (m/s). Vector quantity (has both size and direction). Measured in kg·m/s.

Linear motion refers to movement along a straight path.

• Linear pedagogy is a structured and step-by-step approach to skill learning. It follows a fixed progression where athletes develop skills through repetition and controlled practice.

Linear pedagogy is a structured, step-by-step teaching approach that follows a sequential progression in skill development. It is based on information processing theory, where learners move through distinct stages of learning (cognitive, associative, and autonomous) in a predictable and systematic order.

Macronutrients are nutrients required in large amounts that provide energy necessary for sustaining physiological functions and supporting physical activity.

Cells that engulf and digest pathogens and dead cells, playing a crucial role in immune defense.

The magnitude of risk is a concept used to quantify the likelihood and severity of an injury occurring.

Mastery climates (or task climates) focus on individual improvement and effort-based goals. Emphasize learning, development, and intrinsic motivation. Rewards are based on progress and self-improvement rather than comparison with others.

The ratio between effort and load that determines a lever's efficiency

Mechanical Disadvantage – When a lever system requires more effort to move a load but allows for greater speed and range of motion, commonly found in third-class levers.

The menstrual cycle is a recurring series of hormonal changes that prepares the body for a potential pregnancy. It consists of follicular, ovulatory, luteal, and menstrual phases.

The regular hormonal cycle in females, which can affect exercise performance, endurance, and recovery rates during different phases.

Mental imagery is a cognitive simulation that involves representing sensory information in the mind without a direct external stimulus. It's also known as visualization.

Mental toughness is a personality trait that allows a person to perform consistently under pressure. It's a state of mind that can be improved through practice.

Athletic success is influenced by multiple factors, including physical, tactical, technical, and psychological aspects, with psychological strength often being the key differentiator between winners and others. One of the most important psychological traits in elite sports is mental toughness, which both athletes and coaches regard as crucial for achieving high performance.

A malleable personality trait that helps individuals manage challenging situations by enhancing commitment, confidence, perceived control, and resilience.

Athletic success is influenced by multiple factors, including physical, tactical, technical, and psychological aspects, with psychological strength often being the key differentiator between winners and others. One of the most important psychological traits in elite sports is mental toughness, which both athletes and coaches regard as crucial for achieving high performance.

The total sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body, including energy production and storage.

Micronutrients are essential nutrients that are required by the body in small amounts to maintain health, support growth, and regulate bodily functions.

Minute ventilation is the total volume of air that is inspired or expired from the lungs per minute.

How difficult it is for a body or object to rotate about an axis. Depends on the mass of the body or object, and its mass distribution around the axis.

The moment of inertia measures how difficult it is for an object or body to rotate around an axis. It is expressed in kg·m² and depends on two key factors: Mass of the object or body and Distribution of mass relative to the axis of rotation. Greater mass farther from the axis increases the moment of inertia, making rotation more difficult. Mass closer to the axis decreases the moment of inertia, making rotation easier. The human body’s moment of inertia varies depending on body position and axis of rotation.

A measure of motion that combines mass and velocity, calculated as p = mv where p is momentum (kg⋅m/s), m is mass (kg), and v is velocity (m/s).

Momentum is the product of mass and velocity.

Motion is the change in position of an object or body over time. It can involve movement from one location to another or changes in the position of individual body parts relative to each other. Motion is described using key concepts such as displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

• Motivation defined as the direction (choice of activity) and intensity (level of effort) an individual applies

Motivation can be defined as the drive to take part and persist in an activity, it is a significant factor related to sports adherence.

• Motor programmes are sets of muscle commands allowing movements to be executed automatically, without relying on feedback.

A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

Motor Unit – A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates, functioning as a single unit to produce movement.

A systematic approach to breaking down complex movements into distinct stages, allowing for detailed analysis and improvement of athletic performance.

Muscle tissue is a specialized type of tissue composed of muscle fibers that contract to generate force and facilitate movement.

The process where muscles develop tension and may change length to produce force

Myofascial release is a technique that involves applying pressure to the fascia (a connective tissue that surrounds muscles) to relieve tension, improve mobility, and enhance circulation.

A protein in muscle cells that stores and releases oxygen for muscle contraction.

Myosin: Forms cross-bridges and performs the power stroke.

A protein in muscle cells that stores and releases oxygen during physical activity.

An enzyme that breaks down ATP to provide energy for muscle contraction; its activity is inhibited in acidic conditions.

Need Achievement Theory (NAT) explains how personality and situational factors interact to influence motivation, emotions, and behavior in sports performance.

Negative feedback is a homeostatic mechanism in which a change in a physiological condition triggers a response that counteracts the initial change, maintaining balance.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the synapse (connection) between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber.

A neuron is a nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals to control bodily functions, including movement.

The ability of the brain to form new neural connections, which can be promoted through physical activity, aiding in stress regulation and emotional processing.

Neuroticism refers to how individuals experience and manage their emotions. Those with high neuroticism tend to worry frequently, feel anxious or upset easily, and experience stress in various situations. Its opposite is emotional stability, which reflects a calmer and more resilient response to stress.

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that transmits signals between neurons and other cells.

An object will remain at rest or keep moving at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. This law is also known as the law of inertia

The force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration. This law states that the greater the force applied to an object, the greater the acceleration.

When two objects interact, they apply forces to each other of equal magnitude and opposite direction. This law is also known as the law of action and reaction

• Non-linear pedagogy is a dynamic and adaptable approach to skill learning that allows for self-organization and exploration. Instead of following a strict progression, athletes develop skills through game-like, variable practice conditions.

Non-linear pedagogy is a modern approach to teaching motor skills, grounded in the principles of ecological dynamics.

Also known as noradrenaline, norepinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that works alongside epinephrine to regulate the fight-or-flight response.

Obesity is characterized by excessive body fat accumulation that poses a risk to health.

Openness to experience is a personality trait reflecting curiosity, creativity, and a willingness to embrace new ideas and experiences.

Opposition is the movement of the thumb toward the fingertips, allowing the hand to grasp, pinch, or manipulate objects.

Osmolarity is the concentration of solutes (such as ions and glucose) in a solution, measured in osmoles per liter (Osm/L). It is crucial for maintaining fluid balance and cell function in the body.

A measure of solute concentration in a solution, used to assess hydration and electrolyte balance.

A condition characterized by lower-than-normal bone mineral density, which can be a precursor to osteoporosis.

A condition characterized by weak and brittle bones due to calcium deficiency.

Outcome goal refers to a goal that focuses on the final result or end point of a competition, such as winning a game, achieving a podium finish, or placing above a certain competitor, meaning it is primarily concerned with the outcome rather than the specific actions taken to achieve it.

Short-term overloading that exceeds the body’s current capacity for recovery but does not result in long-term harm, usually due to an increase in intensity, duration, or frequency.

A more severe form of overtraining stress where the body experiences chronic fatigue, decreased performance, and potential physical harm due to insufficient recovery.

A condition caused by excessive training without adequate recovery, leading to fatigue, decreased performance, and increased injury risk.

Damage to bones, muscles, ligaments, or tendons resulting from repetitive trauma and inadequate healing time.

The accumulation of free radicals from intense exercise, leading to cellular damage if not countered by antioxidants.

The amount of oxygen required to restore normal metabolic function following intense exercise, during which the body consumes more oxygen than usual to recover.

The temporary condition where the body’s oxygen consumption during exercise is insufficient to meet the immediate demand, leading to EPOC as the body works to restore oxygen levels and clear metabolic byproducts.

The gap between the oxygen required during exercise and the oxygen available at the onset of physical activity. This deficit leads to anaerobic metabolism and the production of lactate.

The part of the autonomic nervous system that triggers the "rest and digest" functions.

The method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept.

A peptide is a short chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

• Perception-action coupling describes the direct link between sensory information and movement execution. Instead of separate perception and action phases, both occur simultaneously.

An action that occurs at a particular time but does not necessarily indicate skill mastery.

Performance climates (or ego climates) prioritize competition and social comparison. Success is measured by outperforming others. Rewards are given based on rank and external achievement, fostering extrinsic motivation.

Performance goal refers to a specific objective focused on improving one's own personal performance level in a given activity, usually measured by achieving a certain standard or numerical value, rather than solely focusing on the outcome or result against others

Defined by Morris & Summers (1995) as the strongest predictor of self-efficacy. Performance profiling is a technique used by psychologists to understand how athletes perceive their own performance. Performance profiling helps athletes evaluate strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement (Gucciardi & Gordon, 2009).

Periodization is the systematic organization of training into phases to optimize performance at key times while allowing for recovery and avoiding overtraining.

Peripheral fatigue refers to fatigue that occurs at the muscle level, specifically in the neuromuscular junction or the muscle fibers themselves.

Personality refers to the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique adjustment to life.

The unique and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguish one individual from another.

The unique and consistent patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that distinguish one person from another.

Persuasion, as described by Bandura, Morris, and Summers (1995), can take the form of verbal encouragement or action-based influence, often coming from a high-status individual such as a coach or role model. It is most effective when used at the right time, in the right place, and by the right person, helping individuals to overcome challengesand boost self-efficacy.

pH is a measure of hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration, determining how acidic or basic a solution is.

A high-energy compound stored in muscles that provides quick ATP regeneration during the early stages of exercise before aerobic metabolism fully activates.

A rapid ATP production system that provides energy for short bursts of high-intensity activity without requiring oxygen.

Physical well-being is a state of optimal health where the body can function efficiently, perform daily activities without excessive fatigue, and resist diseases effectively.

The physiological state of an athlete plays a crucial role in self-efficacy, as their interpretation of arousal before performance can impact focus and decision-making. High-pressure situations, such as competing in front of an audience, often lead to heightened arousal, which affects attention control.

There are three key dimensions of attention: concentration, which refers to effortful awareness, such as a basketball player listening intently to their coach during a timeout, selective attention, the ability to filter out distractions, like ignoring a loud crowd while focusing on instructions and divided attention, which involves multitasking, such as checking the scoreboard while simultaneously absorbing coaching advice.

Piloerection is the contraction of tiny muscles at the base of hair follicles, causing hair to stand upright.

The process of hair standing up (goosebumps) to trap heat.

A placebo is a substance or treatment with no active therapeutic effect, but it can lead to perceived improvements in health or performance due to the athlete's belief in its effectiveness.

A plane of movement is an imaginary flat surface that divides the body into sections and along which movements occur.

Movement of the foot that points the toes downward away from the shin, increasing the angle between the foot and lower leg.

Position refers to the location of an object or body, typically given by its coordinates.

Positive feedback is a physiological mechanism in which a change in a condition leads to an amplified response, moving further away from homeostasis.

Power is the amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time. It is given by the formula: P=ΔW/Δt where ΔW = change in work done and Δt = change in time

Prehabilitation refers to a proactive approach to injury prevention that focuses on preparing the body for the demands of training and competition.

Prehabilitation involves proactive interventions to prepare athletes for training, competition, and injury prevention. Unlike rehabilitation, which is reactive, prehabilitation focuses on reducing injury risk and enhancing performance.

Preoperative rehabilitation, prehabilitation or prehab, is a form of healthcare intervention that takes place before a medical or surgical intervention with the aim to reduce side effects and complications, and enhance recovery.

A preparatory phase is a period of time when you prepare for something by planning, gathering resources, and taking steps to ensure a smooth transition.

In sports biomechanics, impulse direction refers to the way force is applied to an object to control its movement. For example, in soccer, the direction and magnitude of a kick determine where the ball goes. Impulse acts as a "pushing force," and its direction is crucial in guiding the ball’s trajectory.

Process goals are the actions or steps taken to perform a skill well. They focus on improving form, strategy, and other aspects of performance.

Progressive overload is the gradual increase in training intensity or volume to avoid plateaus and ensure continuous improvement in performance.

A key training concept which dictates that to improve fitness, the body must be exposed to progressively greater levels of stress (e.g., by increasing weight, time, or reps) to promote adaptation.

The curved path an object follows when it is launched into the air and influenced by gravity and air resistance.

Specialized receptors that detect changes in body position and movement.

Protective equipment, or personal protective equipment (PPE), is clothing or equipment that protects people from injury, illness, or the spread of infection.

Protraction is the movement of a body part forward along a horizontal plane.

Time from stimulus introduction to action completion. Components of Response Time include Reaction Time: Time from stimulus onset to the beginning of movement and Movement Time: Time taken to complete the motor action.

Psychological skills are learned mental skills that enhance performance, unlike personality traits, which are largely fixed. Research shows personality has a minimal effect on success in sport (Rowley et al., 1995). Psychological skills can be taught and improved through formal training and sport experiences.

Psychological Skills Training (PST) is a change-based approach designed to enhance athletic performance by helping athletes manage their thoughts, emotions, and mental states. Traditional PST interventions focus on achieving an optimal internal state by evoking positive thoughts and emotions while avoiding negative ones, setting it apart from mindfulness-based approaches, which emphasize acceptance rather than control.

Specialized fibers in the heart that distribute electrical impulses to the ventricles, ensuring coordinated contraction.

Transfer of heat through infrared radiation, where the body radiates heat into the surroundings or absorbs heat from warmer objects or the sun.

Rate coding refers to the frequency at which motor units are stimulated to contract.

Reciprocal inhibition is the neuromuscular process where the contraction of an agonist muscle is accompanied by the relaxation of its antagonist muscle to allow smooth movement at a joint.

Recovery is the time taken for the body to repair and adapt after training.

Recovery in sports and exercise refers to the physiological and psychological processes that restore the body to its pre-exercise state after physical exertion.

The state or fact of being related or connected.

Relaxation techniques refer to a set of practices designed to deliberately reduce muscle tension and mental stress, often used by athletes to manage anxiety and optimize performance by achieving a calm state,

A sleep stage that enhances cognitive function, reaction time, and psychological recovery.

Reposition is the movement of the thumb back to its normal position after opposition.

The rate of breathing. In hot environments, an increased respiratory rate helps expel warm air and assist in cooling the body.

Respiratory rate is the number of breaths per minute.

Determined by the sum of all forces acting on an object. Direction and magnitude of forces influence height and speed. Adjusting technique can optimize trampoline force and minimize gravity’s effect.

Retraction is the movement of a body part backward along a horizontal plane.

Reversibility means that fitness gains are lost when training is reduced or stopped.

Conditions or circumstances that can increase the likelihood of an individual developing an injury or condition.

Age-related loss of muscle mass and strength, often preventable or reduced through regular physical activity.

A structure in muscle cells that stores and releases calcium during muscle contraction.

Second-Class Lever – A lever where the load is between the fulcrum and the effort, providing mechanical advantage (e.g., calf raise).

The self-fulfilling prophecy is a concept that suggests our beliefs and expectations about ourselves or others can actually influence the outcomes we experience.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory that explains how people are motivated and develop their personalities. It also examines how social and cultural factors affect motivation and well-being.

Self-efficacy is the belief in one's own ability to succeed in a specific task or performance.

Self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value, while body image refers to how one perceives their physical appearance.

The potential seriousness or consequences of the injury. This refers to how severe the injury could be if it occurs (e.g., minor sprain vs. severe fracture).

Fatty acids (butyrate, acetate, propionate) produced by gut bacteria through fiber fermentation, essential for colon health, energy metabolism, and inflammation control.

The heart’s natural pacemaker, responsible for initiating electrical impulses that regulate heartbeat.

• Athletes' ability to quickly understand and interpret their environment during performance, enabling effective decision-making under pressure (e.g., making correct decisions in the final moments of a match).

• A skill refers to a specific action or the level of performance of an action that has been acquired through practice and is directed toward achieving a specific goal. It is not something that happens naturally or without purpose. Instead, skills involve learned movements that serve a predetermined function.

Sleep is a biological process characterized by reduced consciousness, altered brain activity, and physiological restoration.

The sliding filament theory describes how actin and myosin filaments within the sarcomere interact to produce muscle contraction.

Muscle fibers adapted for endurance activities that efficiently use oxygen and lactate as fuel sources.

The deepest sleep stage, where the majority of muscle recovery and growth hormone release occurs.

Individuals learn new behaviors, attitudes, and skills by observing and imitating others. Unique aspect: Learning occurs without reinforcement (rewards/punishments). Emphasizes individual capacity to shape behavior and achieve potential.

Social Learning Theory argues that individuals learn new behaviors, attitudes, and skills by observing and imitating others. Learning occurs without reinforcement (rewards/punishments). Thus, the theory emphasizes the individual capacity to shape behavior and achieve potential.

Specificity refers to the idea that training must be directly aligned with the specific sport or fitness goals of an individual.

Speed is the rate of change of distance over time.

Spin is the total angular momentum, or intrinsic angular momentum, of a body

The ability to maintain equilibrium and resist changes in position, determined by several factors affecting balance.

Static friction is the force that prevents objects from moving, while dynamic friction is the force that opposes the motion of objects that are already moving

A steroid is a type of lipid molecule derived from cholesterol.

Humans retain an evolutionary stress response similar to animals, activating the sympathetic nervous system in threatening situations. This fight-or-flight reaction increases heart rate and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) to mobilize energy for action.

A stressor is an event or situation that causes a stress response in the body. Stressors can be physical or psychological, and can be internal or external.

A medical emergency that occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, either by a blockage or rupture of a blood vessel.

Stroke volume (SV) is the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat (mL/beat).

Submaximal exercise refers to exercise performed at an intensity below the maximum effort the body can sustain. Examples include steady-state aerobic exercise like long-distance running or cycling.

Surface drag is the resistance that occurs when an object moves through a fluid, such as air or water, due to friction between the object's surface and the fluid.

The part of the autonomic nervous system that triggers the body's "fight or flight" responses.

A synergist muscle assists the agonist by enhancing force production or stabilizing the movement.

The phase of the cardiac cycle when the ventricles contract to pump blood into the arteries.

Systolic BP is the pressure during heart contraction when the ventricles pump blood into the arteries.

White blood cells that play a central role in the immune response, particularly in identifying and killing infected cells.

Tachycardia refers to an abnormally high heart rate, typically above 100 beats per minute (bpm) in adults.

Task orientation is a focus on completing tasks to achieve goals, rather than social harmony or interpersonal factors. It's often used in the workplace and in education.

Tendons are strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that attach muscles to bones, allowing the force produced by muscle contraction to move bones.

The Coefficient of Restitution (COR) is a measure of how much kinetic energy remains after a collision between two objects. It determines the elasticity of the impact, affecting how much an object bounces back after hitting a surface.

The Interactionist Perspective is a theoretical approach that examines how individuals shape and are shaped by society through their everyday interactions with others, focusing on the meanings people assign to these interactions and how those meanings influence their behavior; essentially, it views society as a product of the continuous process of people creating meaning through their interactions with one another.

Thermoregulation is the process by which the body maintains its internal temperature within a narrow range through physiological and behavioral responses.

Thermoregulation refers to the body's ability to maintain an optimal internal temperature during exercise.

Third-Class Lever – A lever where the effort is between the fulcrum and the load, allowing greater speed and range of motion (e.g., bicep curl).

Tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath.

Torque, or the moment of force, occurs when a force is applied to an object that can rotate around an axis. This force, called an eccentric force, does not act directly through the axis but instead causes rotation. The amount of torque generated depends on: size of the force, direction of the force and the distance from the axis of rotation.

The combination of intensity, volume, and frequency of exercise in a training program.

Researchers use psychometric tools to measure personality reliably, focusing on two key aspects: state, which refers to temporary thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in a given situation, and traits, which are consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving over time.

Transfer of learning refers to how skills or knowledge from one context influence performance in another.

Tropomyosin: Blocks binding sites on actin when the muscle is at rest.

Troponin: Binds calcium and moves tropomyosin to expose binding sites.

A protein involved in muscle contraction that binds to calcium ions to allow actin-myosin cross-bridge formation.

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic condition characterized by insulin resistance, where the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin.

A chronic condition that affects the way the body metabolizes glucose (sugar), leading to high blood sugar levels.

Variety is the principle of incorporating different exercises, training methods, and environments into a training program to prevent the body from adapting too quickly.

The narrowing of blood vessels, directing blood to vital organs during stress or physical exertion.

The narrowing of blood vessels to reduce blood flow and conserve heat.

The widening of blood vessels to increase blood flow and promote heat loss.

The widening of blood vessels, allowing more blood flow to active tissues, like muscles during exercise.

The widening of blood vessels, particularly near the skin, to increase blood flow and enhance heat dissipation.

A diet that excludes all animal products and requires careful nutrient planning.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement and includes direction.

Ventilation is the process of moving air or water across the gas-exchange surface to refresh the supply of gases and maintain the concentration gradient.

Vicarious experience is learning by observing others, also called modelling. Seeing a peer succeed can motivate someone to attempt a task they might not have considered.

Fat stored around the internal organs, such as the liver and intestines.

VO₂ max (maximal oxygen consumption) is the maximum volume of oxygen that an individual can use per minute during intense exercise.

Wave Drag is a drag force acting on a body that is moving at the interface of two fluids.

Results from the application of force over distance. When work is

done, energy is transformed from one form to another.

Work is the product of a force applied to an object and the distance over which the force acts.