Abnormal psychology focuses on behaviors that deviate significantly from societal norms and cause distress or dysfunction, qualifying as mental disorders.

Abnormal psychology focuses on behaviors that deviate significantly from societal norms and cause distress or dysfunction, qualifying as mental disorders.

The process of psychological and cultural change that occurs when individuals from one culture come into prolonged contact with another. It involves adapting to the norms, values, and behaviors of the host culture, while also influencing the dominant culture through mutual transformations.

A substance that enhances or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter. It binds to the same receptors, amplifying the neurotransmitter’s effects.

A living organism used in research to investigate human-like behaviours or processes. The goal is to generalize findings to human behaviour.

A substance that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter. It blocks or reduces neurotransmitter activity by binding to the receptors, dampening or stopping the signal.

An emotional bond between a caregiver and a child that influences behavior.

Patterns of behavior in relationships, categorized as secure, avoidant, or ambivalent.

Individuals with depression often have a pessimistic explanatory style, blaming themselves for negative events.

Individuals with depression often have a pessimistic explanatory style, blaming themselves for negative events.

Many animal brain structures are similar to human brains, supporting the use of animals in studying psychological processes.

Experiences of physical, emotional, or psychological harm during childhood that can have long-term effects on development. Protective factors mitigate the negative impact of trauma, while risk factors increase the likelihood of negative developmental outcomes.

Classification systems are diagnostic manuals that outline categories of mental disorders, their symptoms, and rules for diagnosis.

Refer to systematic deviations in diagnosis caused by factors like clinician or patient characteristics.

Systematic patterns of deviation from rationality in judgment, often a result of using heuristics, mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making.

Errors in thinking, such as overgeneralization or catastrophizing, contribute to disorders like depression.

The inclination to seek, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms existing beliefs.

Larger-scale reorganization of the brain’s cortical areas, often observed following damage or injury.

Universal factors underlying cross-cultural differences in values and behaviors, identified through large-scale surveys and studies.

Universal factors underlying cross-cultural differences in values and behaviors, identified through large-scale surveys and studies.

A system of shared attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and symbols transmitted across generations, providing a framework for interpreting the world (Matsumoto, 2007).

This perspective posits that certain complex processes, like memory or emotional responses, are not confined to one brain region but rather rely on the interaction of multiple areas.

Humans think and make decisions by categorizing their cognitive processes into two systems:

1. System 1: Fast, automatic, unconscious, and intuitive. It relies on past experiences and heuristics.
2. System 2: Slow, deliberate, conscious, and rational. It involves logical reasoning and evaluating consequences.

These systems affect judgment, which, in turn, impacts thinking and decision-making.

EEG measures electrical activity generated by large groups of neurons. Electrodes on the scalp detect these signals, providing real-time data on brain wave patterns.

Enculturation: The process through which individuals acquire the cultural norms and values of their home culture. It involves learning and maintaining the behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes necessary within a culture.

Traits or behaviors that improve survival or reproduction become more common over generations. It was established by Charles Darwin.

A statistical method to calculate heritability by comparing behavioral similarities in MZ and DZ twins.

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often remembered with high confidence but not always with complete accuracy.

Decisions are influenced by whether options are presented as gains or losses.

fMRI detects changes in blood oxygenation levels (BOLD signal) to identify active brain regions during specific tasks. Active areas receive more oxygenated blood, thus it is responsive to the brain's metabolism. The result is a time map, showing when certain parts of the brain were activated.

The process by which information from a gene is used to produce functional products, influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Sequences of DNA located on chromosomes within the cell nucleus that encode instructions for building proteins or regulating biological processes. They serve as the fundamental units of heredity, passing genetic traits from one generation to the next.

Genetic similarity refers to the proportion of shared genetic material between individuals.

Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of people worldwide through the growth of international exchange. It is the process through which cultures influence each other, gradually becoming more similar. This is primarily driven by economic factors and has vast social, cultural, and psychological implications.

The proportion of variation in a trait attributed to genetic differences within a population, often expressed as a percentage.

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that simplify decision-making but can lead to biases. These biases often result from System 1 thinking.

Chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system, a network of glands and organs that regulate various bodily functions by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream.

The perception of a relationship between two unrelated events, often reinforcing stereotypes.

The ability to suppress impulsive behaviors that may lead to negative social reactions, such as grabbing toys.

Inter-Rater Reliability: Agreement between clinicians using the same classification system.

The shared focus between individuals on an object or activity, which is foundational for social learning.

The concept that specific brain regions are responsible for distinct psychological functions.

MRI uses a powerful magnetic field and radio waves and magnetic fields to detect energy emitted by hydrogen atoms in the brain, which vary depending on the type of tissue. This creates a detailed, static three-dimensional image of brain structure.

The brain is thought to consist of specialized "modules," each evolved to handle specific survival-related tasks, such as detecting threats or avoiding disease.

The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) proposes that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory memory briefly holds vast information, STM retains a finite time period, and LTM stores information indefinitely with retrieval processes to access information.

The process in which individuals with traits that enhance their genetic fitness are more likely to survive and reproduce. This leads to the gradual increase of beneficial traits in a population over generations.

Negative cognitive triad includes pessimistic views about the self, world, and future. It focuses on the discrepancy between perception and reality.

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change its neural networks and function in response to environmental demands, learning experiences, or injury. These changes may lead to changes in behaviour. It occurs most rapidly in young children and is incredibly important for growth.

A chemical messenger produced and stored in neurons. It is released into the synaptic gap by the presynaptic neuron and helps transmit signals between neurons by binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

Individuals of the same age group or developmental stage.

The skill to understand another person’s viewpoint, a critical element of social skills.

Chemical messengers secreted by an organism to communicate specific information to another member of the same species, influencing their behavior or physiology. Pheromones act outside the body.

Voluntary, enjoyable activities often associated with developmental benefits, ranging from physical to cognitive and social growth.

PET uses a radioactive tracer binds to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) in the bloodstream. Active brain areas emit higher levels of energy, indicating increased activity.

Prevalence rates refer to the proportion of a population affected by a mental disorder at a given time. These rates can vary significantly across cultures, influenced by factors like diagnostic practices, stigma, and cultural norms.

Reconstructive memory refers to the process by which our brains actively recreate past events, integrating new information with what was originally experienced.

Reliability refers to the consistency of diagnostic outcomes among clinicians.

Schema theory explains how the mind organizes and uses mental representations called schemas to process information efficiently. These stored knowledge structures shape perception, memory, and decision-making by helping us categorize experiences and predict future events.

The idea that a caregiver provides safety for a child to explore their environment.

Anxiety caused by separation from an attachment figure.

The process of organizing individuals into groups based on shared characteristics (nationality, gender, or even trivial factors like favorite colors.)

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) builds on Social Learning Theory by emphasizing the role of cognitive processes in shaping behavior. It explains that learning is not just a reaction to the environment but involves active thinking.

A psychological theory that describes how a person’s sense of who they are (self-concept) is shaped by their membership in social groups.

Introduced by Albert Bandura, the Social Learning Theory (SLT) explains how individuals learn behaviors and attitudes by observing others. It focuses on the role of modeling and reinforcement in shaping behavior, emphasizing that people can learn without direct experience.

An individual’s or family’s economic and social position, typically measured by income, education, and occupation.

A widely held generalization about a group of people, often oversimplified and inaccurate. Unlike prejudice (attitudes) and discrimination (behaviors), stereotypes are cognitive constructs (beliefs).

The idea that a clear, direct relationship exists between a specific brain region and a particular function.

Changes occurring at the level of individual neurons through the formation or elimination of synaptic connections. This process is central to learning and memory.

Validity refers to the extent to which a concept or measurement accurately reflects what it is intended to measure. Types of validity include:

• Predictive Validity: The degree to which a test or diagnosis accurately predicts future outcomes, such as treatment effectiveness.
• Face Validity: The degree to which criteria appears, at face value, to measure what it says it measures. This may be subject to social desirability bias.
• Construct Validity: The degree to which a diagnostic questionnaire actually measures the disorder it intends to measure. This is established by administering the test to people who were previously diagnosed.

Types of validity include:

• Predictive Validity: The degree to which a test or diagnosis accurately predicts future outcomes, such as treatment effectiveness.
• Face Validity: The degree to which criteria appears, at face value, to measure what it says it measures. This may be subject to social desirability bias.
• Construct Validity: The degree to which a diagnostic questionnaire actually measures the disorder it intends to measure. This is established by administering the test to people who were previously diagnosed.

While certain brain areas are dominant in performing specific functions, other regions can contribute or even take over when necessary.

Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), the working memory model elaborates on the STM component of the multi-store model, suggesting it is not a single store but consists of multiple components working together to process information.