Kenyatta and Kenya - Challenges Faced in the first 10 years and Responses to Challenges Notes

Key Questions

1. What were the political challenges after 1963 and how were they addressed?
2. Why did Kenya become a one party state?
3. What were the economic challenges and how were they addressed?
4. What were the social challenges and what was the government response?

What were the political challenges after 1963?

1. Political Landscape in 1961

1. When Kenyatta was released from prison in 1961, two main political parties existed in Kenya:
   1. The Kenya African National Union (KANU), essentially the old KAU with added support from the Luo community, founded by Oginga Odinga and Tom Mboya.
   2. The Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by Ronald Ngala, representing smaller tribes
2. In 1962, both parties formed a coalition government to prepare for the 1963 elections.

2. KANU’s Leadership and Stance on Mau Mau

1. Kenyatta became leader of KANU, determined to distance the party from Mau Mau “hooligans.”
2. Although some ex-detainees and Mau Mau fighters joined KANU, Kenyatta surrounded himself with moderates, keeping the party anti-Mau Mau.
3. KANU won a landslide victory in the 1963 elections.
4. Despite divisions between loyalists and rebels, Kenyatta urged citizens to “forgive and forget” and “bury the past.”
5. He acknowledged the contribution of freedom fighters, but offered no compensation or formal recognition.

3. Continuing Tensions and Amnesty

1. Tensions persisted between ex-Mau Mau fighters and loyalists, leading to violence in the Highlands.
2. The Mau Mau amnesty expired in January 1964, and remaining fighters were treated as criminals.
3. Armed clashes continued in areas like Meru until 1965, when most fighters were captured or killed.

4. Kenyatta’s Policy Toward White Settlers

1. Despite pressure to expel settlers, Kenyatta invited them to stay, promoting reconciliation.
2. He sought to “bury the past” and maintain economic stability.

5. Features of the 1963 Constitution

1. Regionalism (Majimbo):
   1. Kenya was divided into seven regions, each with its own legislature and executive.
   2. Regions had limited autonomy, with powers subject to central government oversight.
2. Westminster System:
   1. The Prime Minister was appointed by the Governor General.
   2. Executive authority rested with the British Monarch, delegated to the Governor General.
   3. Kenya remained a dominion under Queen Elizabeth II.
3. Bicameral National Assembly:
   1. Senate (Upper House): represented regional and tribal interests; required supermajorities for constitutional amendments.
   2. House of Representatives (Lower House): represented national interests and could pass no-confidence votes.
4. Minority Protections:
   1. A Bill of Rights, modelled on the European Convention on Human Rights, protected European and Asian communities.
5. Independent Judiciary:
   1. Judges held secure tenure, ensuring impartiality and checks on government power.
6. Independent Electoral Commission:
   1. Oversaw fair elections, constituency boundaries, and impartial management.

6. Early Challenges and Criticisms

1. The constitution was complex and lacked broad political support.
2. KANU favoured centralisation, while KADU supported federalism.
3. Many Kenyans rejected the Westminster model, viewing it as unsuitable for local traditions.
4. The British retained significant influence, and minority tribes felt neglected, causing unrest among Somalis and Arabs.
5. European and Asian backing of KADU deepened party distrust.

7. Constitutional Changes and Rise of Central Authority

1. From 1964 to 1991, amendments strengthened central government and presidential power:
   1. 1964: Kenya became a Republic; the President became Head of State and Commander of the Armed Forces.
   2. Second Amendment: Regionalism abolished; all services centralised.
   3. KADU dissolved (1964), marking Kenya’s transition to a one-party state under KANU.
   4. Kenyatta consolidated power, expanded personal wealth, and acquired land.
   5. KANU’s party structure weakened; no elections or delegates’ conferences held.
   6. The National Assembly lost its oversight function, becoming subordinate to the executive.
   7. 1965 Amendment: Removed entrenched provisions, lowered majority thresholds, and abolished regional autonomy.
   8. Senate abolished (1966); first one-party elections saw low turnout.
   9. Censorship and detention without trial became tools of control.

8. Political Stability and Security Challenges

1. Despite authoritarianism, Kenya enjoyed relative political stability under Kenyatta.
2. A Somali rebellion threatened secession; 2,000 shifta fighters, supported by Somalia, engaged in guerrilla warfare.
3. In 1964, Kenyatta invited British troops to suppress a military mutiny and raised salaries for security forces.
4. He signed a mutual defence treaty with Britain, ensuring military support but also continued UK influence.
5. A state of emergency in the North Eastern region led to collective punishments and civilian suffering, mirroring Mau Mau-era tactics.

9. Results of the Shifta War

• Over 3,000 deaths occurred during the conflict.
• The war strained national resources and deepened mistrust between Somalis and other Kenyans.
• Ethnic Somalis were treated as subjects, not citizens, and the region remained underdeveloped, reflecting colonial neglect.

What were the economic challenges?

1. Land as a Central Issue

1. Land was the core cause of the Mau Mau revolt and resistance to colonial rule.
2. At the Lancaster House negotiations, Britain agreed to provide £27 million to buy out white farmers and redistribute land to indigenous Kenyans.

2. Land Redistribution Policies

1. Kenyatta’s government encouraged private land-buying companies, often led by prominent politicians.
2. The government sold or leased land to these companies, which then subdivided and distributed plots among shareholders.
3. Continued land consolidation programs from the colonial era to:
   1. Merge fragmented plots into larger units.
   2. Increase agricultural productivity, especially in high-potential areas.

3. Criticism and Challenges

1. The government faced criticism for favoring Kikuyu elites and political supporters.
2. Agriculture remained vital to the economy, despite a push for industrialization.
3. The state needed to ensure high production to feed the population and maintain export crops.

4. Agricultural Growth Policies

1. Kenyatta’s administration promoted wealth creation through small-scale agriculture, supported by:
   1. Price stabilisation
   2. Investment in processing
   3. Fertiliser subsidies
   4. Seasonal credit
   5. Farmer training and veterinary support
   6. Development loans
2. Outcome:
   1. Significant growth in cash-crop production (especially coffee and tea).
   2. By 1969, agriculture earned 18% of foreign exchange.

5. Economic Structure at Independence

1. Agriculture = dominant sector
2. Industry = only 10% of GDP
3. Economy relied on exporting primary goods and importing manufactured products

6. Industrial Development Goals

1. Aim: Diversify economy through:
   1. Agricultural processing for export
   2. Import substitution

7. 'African Socialism' / State Capitalism

1. Policy developed in 1964–65 called ‘African Socialism’, but more accurately ‘state capitalism’ (Hornsby).
2. Mixed model:
   1. Private sector drives growth
   2. State plans, regulates, and provides capital
3. Rejection of full nationalisation to attract foreign investors
4. State retained final say in business and investment

8. Internal Divisions

1. Odinga and radicals wanted:
   1. Faster nationalisation
   2. Non-alignment
   3. Africanisation
2. Kenyatta’s cabinet preferred a moderate, free-market path, welcoming Western investment.

9. Industrial Successes (1960s)

1. Growth in home-grown industries:
   1. Mombasa oil refinery
   2. General Motors car plant
   3. Tea factories (Kenya Tea Development Authority)
   4. Kisumu Cotton Mills, sugar factories, Kenya Canners
2. 1964–69: 6% annual growth rate

10. Wealth Inequality

1. Growth benefited many, but led to large disparities.
2. Wealth concentrated among Kenyatta’s family and close associates.
3. High population growth meant living standards did not rise equally.

11. Africanisation and 'Black Capitalism'

1. Aimed to reduce foreign dominance and empower Africans:
2. Commercial and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDC):
   1. Provided loans to black-owned firms
   2. Acquired 51% stake in Kenya National Assurance Company
3. Trade Licensing Act (1967):
   1. Banned non-citizens from key trades (rice, sugar, maize → later soap, cement, textiles)
   2. Prompted migration of Kenyan Asians (1967–68)
4. Kenya National Trading Corporation (1965):
   1. Ensured indigenous control of essential commodity trade

12. Africanisation of Administration

1. Provided opportunities for young Kenyan professionals.
2. Over half were Kikuyu, raising fears that Africanisation = Kikuyuisation.

13. Continued Role of Foreigners

1. Europeans and Asians still played important roles due to skills and expertise.
2. Government accepted their presence as necessary for industrial growth.

What Were the Social Challenges?

1. Education

1. Kenyatta placed a strong emphasis on education for all children.
2. Immediate action: Desegregation of schools.
   1. Schools previously reserved for non-Africans were required to be at least 50% African by 1967.
3. The Ominde Commission was established to recommend steps for achieving universal free primary education.
   1. Between 1964 and 1966, the number of primary schools grew by 11.6%.
   2. By Kenyatta’s death, 85% of children were enrolled in primary education.
4. The Commission also recommended greater emphasis on secondary and higher education to train indigenous African personnel for the civil service and skilled professions.
   1. Secondary schools increased by 80%.
   2. By Kenyatta’s death, University of Nairobi and Kenyatta University had been established.

2. Healthcare

1. The new government aimed to provide free healthcare for all, believing a healthy population would support economic development.
2. In 1965, Kenya formalised its "free care for all" plan:
   1. Abolished fees for public clinic services.
   2. Health services were managed locally and funded through tax revenue.
3. By Kenyatta’s death:
   1. Most Kenyans had much better access to healthcare than during colonial times.
   2. Life expectancy rose from 45 (pre-independence) to 55 by the late 1970s, the second-highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.