The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1941): Growing Japanese aggression
- As we have studied, the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 was done by the Kwantung Army without the approval of the Japanese government.
- It is not fully clear what Emperor Hirohito thought about the army’s takeover of Manchuria, but he took no action and made no public comment.
- The Kwantung Army took more preeminence in Japanese domestic politics.
- From May 1932 onwards, governments needed to have the authorization of the army and accept military demands.
- Japanese politics became very unstable, with ten different administrations between 1932-1941.
- Ultra nationalism grew in Japan during the 1930s
- Especially stimulated by public education in schools and universities that had mandatory readings that enshrined the divine nature of the Emperor and the duty of every Japanese to serve him and the Nation.
- The Manchurian invasion made it easier for aggressive nationalism to take hold
- As the official reason for Manchuria had been the idea of “self defense” and the “attack” that China had inflicted on the railway in Mukden.
- Furthermore, the 1930s saw the dissemination of the perspective that Japan had a “special destiny” to lead Asia and to free Asia from Western hegemony.
- After Japan secured Manchuria, the expansion continued.
- By 1936, most of Northern China was controlled by Japan.
- China attempted to rule some of the demilitarized zones, but they failed.
- In July 1937, the Marco Polo incident opened a new phase in the clash between Japan and China.
- The Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurred near Beijing, when Japanese and Chinese troops clashed.
- A missing Japanese soldier sparked fighting, which escalated rapidly.
- This skirmish marked the start of full-scale war between China and Japan, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War.
- According to the supporters of the “civilian-military split thesis”, the period between 1931 and 1945 was one where an ultra nationalist “militaristic clique” took control of government in Japan and forced a change in foreign policy that led to imperialism and fascism.
- The challenge to the “civilian-military split thesis” argues that Japanese expansionism was a strategy put forward both by the military and by civilians.
- China’s nationalist speech, the needs of the Great Depression and even the growing power of the USSR after Stalin rose to power are the factors that explain the expansion.
- In Paper 1 historiography is not needed for building a strong source based essay.
- Nevertheless, it is a good idea to start noting these different perspectives to integrate them in essay writing practice for Papers 2 and 3.
- Which perspective looks stronger?
- The “civilian-military split thesis” or the one that criticizes it?
- An evaluation of perspectives can be a key tool to get a 7 in your essays.
- The Marco Polo Bridge Incident was the trigger for the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
- The Japanese troops stationed near the Marco Polo bridge organized a training exercise on the night of July 7th, 1937.
- During the training, shots were exchanged with Chinese troops that were in a nearby garrison. It is unclear who fired first.
- A Japanese soldier was reported missing and Japan demanded to inspect a town near the bridge. China refused.
- The soldier returned by his own means. The missing soldier was a clear excuse put forward by Japan to start skirmishes that rapidly evolved into full out conflict.
The war between China and Japan that starts in 1937 is called the Second Sino Japanese War because there was a first war between the countries in the late 19th C.
Development of the War
The development of the war can be organized in three phases.
- Phase 1 (1937-38) saw the rapid advance of the Japanese towards the South of Manchuria and Jehol and the establishment of bases in the Eastern coast.
- Between November and December 1937, the Japanese conquered Shanghai and Nanjing.
- By mid 1938, Japan had conquered a relevant region in Northern and Eastern China, controlling around 170 million Chinese.
- At that moment, the Chinese Nationalists´ strategy changed to a defensive war.
- Phase two (1939-1944) was characterized by a war of attrition.
- The Chinese looked towards a “Sustained strategy of attrition” in the words of Chiang Kai Shek and refused negotiations, hoping to wear down the enemy through a long conflict.
- Japanese troops used more force and terror to break Chinese resistance but were unsuccessful. In 1940 and 41, Japan made two huge strategic bombings but was still unable to marr Chinese morale.
- After Pearl Harbor, in December 1941, Japan had to allocate resources to its participation in the Second World War and the conflict in China further stalemated.
- Phase three (1944-1945) started with Operation Ichigo in 1944.
- The Japanese impacted the GMD forces gravely: not only 500,000 soldiers were killed, but also many factories under the control of China were destroyed.
- During the first half of 1945, the focus of Japan was once again Manchuria, because the Communist army under Mao had gained prominence there.
- In August 1945, Soviet troops occupied Manchuria.
- The war ended because of Japan's unconditional surrender in WW2 after two atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
