Germany: Emergence of democratic states Notes

Conditions that encouraged democratic reform in Germany

1. Germany’s defeat in the First World War (1918) destroyed confidence in the Kaiser’s autocratic governmentand military leadership.
2. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) placed full blame for the war on Germany and imposed territorial losses, military restrictions, and reparations, creating anger toward the old ruling system.
3. The November Revolution (1918), triggered by naval mutinies and mass protests, forced Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate, ending monarchy.
4. Workers’ and soldiers’ councils took control of cities, showing a total collapse of imperial authority.
5. Severe economic crisis, including hyperinflation in 1923, made Germans demand a new political system that promised stability and fairness.

Case study

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919, officially ended the First World War between Germany and the Allied powers.
• Germany was excluded from negotiations and forced to accept the treaty, which many Germans described as a dictated peace (diktat).
• The treaty imposed harsh political, economic, and military penalties on Germany.
• These terms caused deep resentment, weakened support for democracy, and contributed to the rise of extremist movements, including Nazism.
• Many Germans blamed the Weimar government for accepting the treaty, damaging its legitimacy.

War guilt and reparations

• Article 231 (War Guilt Clause) forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war.
• This clause was deeply humiliating and angered many Germans.
• Germany was required to pay reparations to the Allies for war damage.
• In 1921, reparations were fixed at 132 billion gold marks, a sum widely seen as impossible to pay.
• Reparations placed severe strain on the German economy and contributed to economic instability.

Territorial losses

• Germany lost around 13% of its European territory and all overseas colonies.
• Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
• Parts of West Prussia and Silesia were given to Poland, creating the Polish Corridor and separating East Prussia from Germany.
• The Saar region was placed under League of Nations control for 15 years, with its coal given to France.
• The city of Danzig became a free city under League of Nations protection.

Military restrictions

• Germany’s army was limited to 100,000 volunteer soldiers.
• Conscription was abolished, and the General Staff was disbanded.
• Germany was banned from having tanks, aircraft, submarines, and heavy artillery.
• The Rhineland was made a demilitarised zone, with Allied troops stationed there for 15 years.
• These restrictions were designed to prevent Germany from becoming a military threat again.

The Role & Significance of Leaders

1. Friedrich Ebert became Germany’s first democratic president in 1919 and worked to stabilise democracy during revolution and political violence.
2. Ebert used the army and Freikorps to crush communist uprisings, showing how democracy survived by using force.
3. Gustav Stresemann strengthened democracy after 1923 by ending hyperinflation, introducing the Rentenmark, and improving foreign relations.
4. Stresemann’s foreign policy successes helped Germany rejoin the international community and increased support for democracy.
5. Konrad Adenauer, as West Germany’s first chancellor after 1949, rebuilt democracy through economic recovery, political stability, and Western integration.

How Democratic was the Weimar Constitution?

1. The Weimar Constitution (1919) introduced universal suffrage for men and women over 20, making it one of the most democratic systems in Europe at the time.
2. Germany became a federal state, with regional Länder retaining local powers under a national government.
3. A Bill of Rights guaranteed freedoms such as speech, religion, and equality before the law.
4. The president was elected every seven years and could appoint the chancellor, dissolve parliament, and rule by emergency powers under Article 48.
5. Proportional Representation (PR) allowed many parties into parliament, but this caused weak coalition governments and political instability.

The Collapse of Democracy and its Rebirth after 1945

1. After 1930, economic crisis destroyed confidence in democracy and helped extremist parties gain support.
2. In 1933, Hitler became chancellor and created a one-party Nazi dictatorship, ending Weimar democracy.
3. After Germany’s defeat in 1945, the country was divided into East Germany (communist) and West Germany (democratic).
4. In 1949, West Germany adopted a new democratic constitution called the Basic Law.
5. Under Konrad Adenauer, West Germany became a stable democracy, achieved economic recovery, joined NATO in 1955, and helped found the European Union in 1957.