Nehru’s Foreign Policy and Post-Independence Challenges
- Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru shaped India’s early foreign policy through non-alignment, economic planning and cautious diplomacy toward Pakistan.
- Nehru promoted the Non-Aligned Movement, seeking independence from both US and Soviet influence.
- His government prioritized state-led economic development, five-year plans and industrialization.
- Relations with Pakistan were tense due to partition violence, refugee flows and disputes over assets.
- Nehru emphasized peaceful coexistence but also strengthened India’s military after early conflicts.
- India and Pakistan clashed over the princely state of Kashmir, setting the stage for future wars.
Case study
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–48 (First Kashmir War)
Causes of the Conflict
- The Maharaja of Kashmir hesitated to join either India or Pakistan, leading to political uncertainty.
- Tribal militias from Pakistan’s frontier region invaded Kashmir in October 1947.
- Kashmir’s accession to India triggered full-scale military involvement from both sides.
- Both nations viewed Kashmir as essential to national identity and security.
- Weak colonial-era borders heightened confusion and territorial claims.
Results and Impact
- The United Nations arranged a ceasefire in 1949, establishing the Line of Control (LoC).
- India retained control of the Kashmir Valley, while Pakistan held Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.
- The war solidified long-term mistrust between the two states.
- Kashmir became the core issue shaping India–Pakistan diplomacy for decades.
- The conflict influenced Nehru to invest more heavily in India’s military and administrative institutions.
India–Pakistan Tensions and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
- Growing disputes over Kashmir, Cold War alliances and national ambitions deepened hostility, culminating in a second major war in 1965.
- Pakistan supported insurgency in Indian-controlled Kashmir, hoping to force international intervention.
- India responded with military action across the LoC, escalating the conflict.
- Pakistan’s alliances with the US and China provided confidence for a stronger stance.
- India expanded its military capacity after the 1962 Sino-Indian War, enabling larger operations.
- The war ended in stalemate but reinforced the centrality of Kashmir in regional conflict
Definition
LoC (Line of Control)
Ceasefire boundary dividing Indian- and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir after 1949.
Definition
Accession
Legal process by which princely states joined either India or Pakistan.
Case study
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
Causes and Escalation
- Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar, sending fighters into Kashmir to incite rebellion.
- India responded with full military mobilization, expanding the conflict beyond Kashmir.
- Miscalculations on both sides led to rapid escalation.
- The US and USSR pressured both sides to halt the fighting due to Cold War concerns.
- The war highlighted the role of ideology, nationalism and military rivalry.
Results and Consequences
- The Tashkent Agreement (1966) ended hostilities and restored pre-war borders.
- Neither side achieved territorial gains, reinforcing the conflict’s futility.
- The war damaged Pakistan’s economy and weakened President Ayub Khan’s rule.
- India’s defense modernization accelerated after the war.
- Tensions remained unresolved, leading directly to the crisis of 1971.
Definition
Operation Gibraltar
Pakistani plan to infiltrate fighters into Kashmir in 1965.
Definition
Tashkent Agreement
Soviet-brokered peace agreement ending the 1965 war.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and the Independence of Bangladesh
- Political repression in East Pakistan, economic inequality and civil war drew India into a major conflict that reshaped South Asia.
- West Pakistan dominated politics, military positions and economic planning, causing resentment in East Pakistan.
- The 1970 elections gave Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League a majority, but West Pakistan refused to transfer power.
- Operation Searchlight targeted students, civilians and political leaders in East Pakistan.
- Millions fled to India, creating a huge refugee crisis.
- India intervened in December 1971, leading to a decisive military victory.
Common Mistake
- Overlooking the importance of language and economic inequality in East Pakistan’s grievances.
- Treating India–Pakistan tensions as only religious, ignoring strategic and political factors.
- Forgetting that Nehru’s non-aligned policy shaped India’s global position.
- Oversimplifying the 1971 war as an India–Pakistan dispute instead of a civil war with humanitarian dimensions.
- Ignoring the role of Cold War powers such as the US, China and the USSR in regional outcomes.
Exam technique
- Use the First Kashmir War and 1965 War as your two main case studies for depth.
- Show continuity in Kashmir tensions from 1947 to 1971.
- Compare India’s and Pakistan’s political systems when explaining foreign policy choices.
- Link economic and linguistic grievances in East Pakistan to the outbreak of war in 1971.
- Highlight the diplomatic role of the Tashkent Agreement and UN involvement.
Theory of Knowledge
- How does national identity shape historical interpretations of territorial conflict?
- Can states justify war in the name of self-determination or national security?
- How do political biases influence the retelling of India–Pakistan conflicts?
Self review
- Assess the foreign policy priorities of India under Nehru between 1947 and 1964.
- Examine the causes and consequences of the Indo-Pakistani Wars between 1947 and 1971.
- To what extent did political and economic inequalities lead to the independence of Bangladesh?
