Ho Chi Minh and Vietnam - Origins and Rise of Independence Movements Notes

Key Questions

1. Why did nationalism grow under French rule?
2. What was the impact of communist ideology on the Vietnamese independence movement?
3. What was the impact of wars against the Japanese and the French on the independence movement?
4. Why did the Cold War lead to US intervention and what impact did this have?

Why did Nationalism Grow Under French Rule?

1. French Interest and Colonisation

1. During the 19th century, French influence replaced Chinese dominance in Vietnam.
2. French traders failed to establish strong ties by 1700, but missionaries were more successful.
3. By 1800, hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese had converted to Christianity.
4. The (French) East India Company supported missionaries for economic advantage.
5. When Emperors persecuted missionaries (1830s), France used it as a pretext for military intervention.
6. Weak imperial governance made conquest easier.
7. By 1887, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia formed the French Indochina Union under a French Governor-General in Hanoi.

2. Administration under French Rule

1. Cochinchina, Cambodia, Annam, and Tonkin became parts of French Indochina.
2. Cochinchina had special status, ruled as part of France, with representation in the French National Assembly.
3. Annam and Tonkin were not integrated; Annam retained a Vietnamese emperor in Hue.
4. The French suppressed violent resistance, including the Scholars’ Revolt, led by traditionalists seeking to restore Confucian systems.

3. Rise of Vietnamese Nationalism (Early 1900s)

1. Phan Boi Chau emerged as a key nationalist leader.
   1. Founded Duy Tan Hoi (Reform Association) – the first nationalist organisation in Vietnam.
   2. Initially inspired by Japanese modernisation, later by Sun Yat-sen’s Chinese Republican model.
2. His failed uprisings reflected a new educated urban class inspired by Western ideas.

4. The Impact of World War I

1. The First World War strengthened Vietnamese nationalism.
2. Ho Chi Minh attended the Versailles Peace Conference, appealing to President Wilson for self-determination under the Fourteen Points.

5. Growth of Political Movements (1920s–1930s)

1. Early moderate political parties emerged but achieved little progress.
2. Shift towards radical forces:
   1. VNQDD (Vietnamese Nationalist Party) was short-lived.
   2. ICP (Indochinese Communist Party), founded by Ho Chi Minh, became the main opposition to both French and later Japanese rule during World War II.

What was the impact of Communist Ideology on the Vietnamese Independence Movement?

1. ICP Resistance in the 1930s

1. The Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) attempted to resist French colonial rule during the 1930s, but these efforts were largely unsuccessful.
2. Despite repression, the ICP survived by going underground, maintaining its organisation and leadership networks.

2. Japanese Occupation and the Rise of Ho Chi Minh

1. During the Second World War, Japan took control of Indochina, creating a power vacuum that allowed Ho Chi Minh to re-emerge as a resistance leader.
2. Ho established a “soviet” base in the mountainous region south of the Chinese border.

3. Formation of the Viet Minh (1941)

1. In May 1941, Ho Chi Minh convened a meeting to form the League for Vietnamese Independence, known as the Viet Minh.
2. The Viet Minh fought against Japanese occupation forces, combining military resistance with propaganda campaigns.
3. Vo Nguyen Giap, a key ally of Ho Chi Minh, organised and trained armed groups for guerrilla warfare.

4. Allied Support and Gains in 1945

1. The Viet Minh received aid from the United States, including airdrops of weapons to assist in their fight against Japan.
2. By June 1945, the Viet Minh had liberated six northern provinces, consolidating control over large parts of northern Vietnam.

5. The August Revolution and the Fall of the Emperor

1. After Japan’s defeat in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh moved swiftly to seize power before the French could return.
2. Emperor Bao Dai:
   1. Advised the French not to return to Vietnam.
   2. Invited the Viet Minh to form a new government.
   3. Abdicated, symbolically transferring the Mandate of Heaven to Ho Chi Minh, in traditional Confucian terms.

6. Proclamation of Independence (2 September 1945)

1. On 2 September 1945, in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh declared the formation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).
2. He became President and issued a Declaration of Independence, modelled partly on American and French revolutionary ideals.

7. Global Context: Winds of Change after 1945

1. The post-World War II climate made independence seem increasingly achievable:
   1. Both the United States and the Soviet Union expressed opposition to imperialism.
   2. The ideological justifications for empire were discredited.
   3. The establishment of the United Nations (1945) further undermined colonialism, emphasising human rights, freedom, and self-determination.

What was the impact of wars against the Japanese and the French on the independence movement?

1. Allied Occupation After Japanese Defeat

1. Despite Ho’s declaration, the Allied powers (Britain, USA, USSR, China) had agreed that Indochina would be temporarily occupied after Japan’s defeat:
   1. Chinese Nationalists in the north (above the 16th parallel)
   2. British troops in the south
2. On arrival, the British, under General Gracey, refused to cooperate with the Viet Minh despite their welcoming stance.
3. Instead, British forces attacked the Viet Minh, helping to restore French control in the south by 1946.

2. Shifting Power in the North

1. In the north, Chinese forces initially recognised Ho Chi Minh’s authority.
2. However, by February 1946, they recognised French sovereignty and withdrew their troops.
3. Though Ho opposed French control, he preferred French rule to Chinese domination, famously stating: “It is better to sniff French dung for a while than eat China’s all our lives.”

3. The Ho–Sainteny Agreement (1946)

1. Ho Chi Minh and France reached an agreement:
   1. France recognised Vietnam as an independent state within the French Union.
   2. Ho allowed 25,000 French troops to remain.
2. Both sides viewed this as a temporary solution:
   1. France wanted to restore national pride and reclaim Indochina.
   2. Ho Chi Minh sought time for the Viet Minh to reorganise and strengthen.
3. Ho’s negotiations in France achieved little diplomatically but gave the Viet Minh time to recover.

4. U.S. Policy and Truman’s Support for France

1. Despite World War II promises of self-determination and Roosevelt’s anti-imperialism, President Truman chose to support French reoccupation.
2. Ho Chi Minh repeatedly requested U.S. recognition for the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), but the U.S. refused.
3. As a result, Ho turned to the Soviet Union and China for diplomatic recognition and support.

5. The Cold War Context

1. The escalation of the Cold War and its spread to Asia deeply influenced U.S. decisions:
   1. Anti-communist sentiment in the U.S. (Red Scare)
   2. The need for French support in NATO
   3. Fear of communist expansion in Southeast Asia
2. Consequently, Truman’s backing for France increased, framing Vietnam as part of a global ideological struggle.

6. The Legacy of Early Resistance

1. The Viet Minh’s struggle against the French not only strengthened nationalist unity but also inspired confidence in independence efforts.
2. Following France’s defeat, an international conference was held in Geneva to negotiate peace terms.
3. Significantly, the United States did not attend the Geneva Conference, marking the beginning of a new phase in Vietnam’s post-colonial conflict.

Why did the Cold War Lead to US Intervention and what was the impact?

1. The Cold War Context and U.S. Misunderstanding

1. In the Cold War environment, the United States failed to recognise that Vietnamese independence was primarily about nationalist aspirations, not Communist expansion.
2. American policymakers interpreted Vietnam’s struggle for independence through the lens of the Cold War, viewing it as part of a global ideological conflict.
3. As historian Robert D. Schulzinger observed “Had American leaders not thought that all international events were connected to the Cold War there would have been no American War in Vietnam.”
4. This misinterpretation led to the U.S. commitment to contain communism rather than support self-determination.

2. U.S. Support for Diem and Its Consequences

1. Following the Geneva Accords (1954), the U.S. backed Ngo Dinh Diem, the leader of South Vietnam, as part of its anti-communist strategy.
2. Diem’s regime was marked by corruption, repression, and authoritarianism, alienating many South Vietnamese citizens.
3. This U.S. support for an unpopular government further fueled nationalist sentiment and strengthened calls for a unified Vietnam.
4. Opposition grew from multiple groups, not just communists, reflecting broad resistance to foreign-backed rule.

3. The Rise of the Viet Cong and the NLF

1. Resistance to Diem’s government emerged from the remnants of the Viet Minh and other nationalist groups.
2. Around 80,000 individuals who had migrated north in 1954 after the Geneva settlement began to return south, joining anti-Diem movements.
3. These forces coalesced into the Viet Cong (Vietnamese Communists), though early opposition also included non-communist elements.
4. In 1960, various groups united to form the National Liberation Front (NLF), a coalition of about 20 South Vietnamese organisations opposed to Diem’s rule.

4. Escalation with U.S. Military Intervention

1. By 1965, the arrival of American marines marked a turning point:
   1. The U.S. military presence intensified opposition to both South Vietnam’s government and American involvement.
   2. What began as national resistance evolved into a wider war of independence against what many Vietnamese saw as neo-colonial intervention.
2. Rather than weakening the nationalist cause, U.S. intervention strengthened Vietnamese unity and deepened anti-American sentiment.